I 639 
W7 MS 
L918a 
iiopy 1 



MINNESOTA DEPARTMENT OF 

LABOR AND INDUSTRIES 

BUREAU OF WOMEN AND CHILDREN 

LOUISE E. SCHUTZ. Superintendent 
St. Paul, Minnesota 



WOMEN IN INDUSTRY 

IN MINNESOTA IN 1918 



FIELD INVESTIGATION 

Carried on by 

Women in Industry Committee 
Council of National Defence 

and 

Bureau of Women and Children 




MINNESOTA DEPARTMENT OF 

LABOR AND INDUSTRIES 

BUREAU OF WOMEN AND CHILDREN 

LOUISE E. SCHUTZ. Superintendent 
St. Paul, Minnesota 



WOMEN IN INDUSTRY 

IN MINNESOTA IN 1918 



FIELD INVESTIGATION 

Carried on by 

Women in Industry Committee 
Council of National Defence 

and 

Bureau of Women and Children 



Written by 

CAROL ARONOVICI, Ph. D. 

Special Agent for the State Department of Labor and Industries 



^. 



3^ 



CONTENTS 



Letter ol' Tiansinitlal 3 

Foreword 4-5 

Extent, of I he Investigation 6 

Analytical Tables 6-33 

Industries and Wages, Tables 1 to 4 6-9 

Marital Condition and Family Supi)3it, Tables 5 to 7 9-11 

.Marital Condition and Support ot Children. Tables 8 to It) 11-13 

Wages. Ages, and Trade. Tables 11 to 29 14-24 

■ Hours of Labor, Tables 30 to 36 24-28 

Nativity and Conjugal Condition of Wage Eainers, Tables 37 

to 47 28-33 

Recommendations 34 

Conelusions 35 



ti; Of De 
SEP 18 1929 



LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 

Minnesota Department of Labor and Industries 

Bureau of Women and Children 

St. Paul, June 11, 1920. 
Sir: We have the honor to submit herewith the report giving the 
results of the survey made by the Committee of Women in Industry, 
Women's Division, Minnesota Commission of Public Safety, United States 
Council of Defense, and the Bureau of Women and Children, Department 
of Labor and Industries. 

The survey was begun in March, 1918, at a time when, because of the 
great war and the need of increased production, it seemed that women in 
larger numbers than ever before were engaging in work outside the home. 
The survey was closed in December, 1919. 

The members of the state committee were: Miss Agnes L. Peterson, 
superintendent of the Bureau of Women and Children, Chairman; Miss 
Victoria Eiicson, Duluth; Miss Florence Burton, Minneapolis; and Miss 
Louise E. Schutz, St. Paul, inspectors of the Bureau of Women and Children; 
Mr. E. G. Hall, president of the Minnesota State Federation of Labor, Min- 
neapolis. 

After Miss Peterson was called for federal work, Miss Louise E. Schutz, 
who was made active chairman of tlie Committee of Women in Industry 
and superintendent of the Bureau of Women and Children, directed the work 
to its close and completed the survey. 

Members of the Women's Committee in all but seven of the eighty-six 
counties in the state took part in the work and made the survey possible. 

The statistical work was done by the staff of the Bureau of Women 
and Children in co-operation with the Bureau of Statistics, Department of 
Labor and Industries. 

The report was written by Carol Ai-onovici, Ph.D. 
Respectfully submitted, 

LOUISp E. SCHUTZ, 
Superintendent of the Bureau of Women and Children. 
Hon. J. A. A. Burnquist, Governor of Minnesota, 
State Capitol, St. Paul, Minn. 



WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN MINNESOTA 

FOREWORD. 

The data upon which the following study is based were gathered by 
volunteers in the various committees throughout the state of Minnesota, 
where a sufficient number of women were employed to justify a local in- 
quiry. 

Wliile the collection of statistical data by volunteers is open to some 
objectiors, the fact that the work was done during the war, and that the 
women giving their se'^vices were selected among the leaders in community 
service in each locality who had already done work requiring accurate study 
and recording of facts, and the prompt and painstaking v/ay in which the 
reports were returned, would warrant confidence in the data both as rep- 
resentative of conditions in the particular localities studied, and as char- 
acteristic of the distribution, wages and employment of women throughout 
the state of Minnesota. 

Of the many v/omen intrusted with the investigation of conditions in 
their own locality some of course failed to make returns, v/hile those who 
were conjpelled to delay their work were in most instances prevented by ill- 
ness, war work or difficulties placed in the way of the investigators by 
employers of women labor. 

The committee on women in industry of the Council of National De- 
fense, under whose a,uspices the investigation was carried on, had a double 
object in view when the work was launched. The committee desired ac- 
curate data relative to v/omen workers in the state which could be used 
in the shaping of a constructive policy for the protection of women wage 
earners; and also to inform the local communities, particularly the leaders, 
as to the local conditions which they could be instrumental in improving. 

The vast correspondence carried on in connection with this work brought 
daily evidence of the enlightening influence that the personal investigation 
of conditions was having. Selecting at random from the many letters, we 
may quote the following sentences as characteristic: "The work is very 
interesting and I am grateful for the privilege of assisting. A very important 
and worthy work, for this is the ideal way of obtaining information first 
hand and correctly on such matters." "I do not wish to give up this public 
work, and have been too selfish to let any one else do it for you." "My, 
what a lot there is which might be accomplished if everybody lived with 
the thought of making the best of himself and doing the work for others." 

The educational value to the women who helped make the survey can' 
not be estimated, but without doubt many women, for the first time, became 
interested in the v/orking girl and the conditions under v/hich she works. 
Some learned that we have in Minnesota Child Y/elfare Boards, and Mothers' 
Pensions are available under certain conditions in cases where there is 
need. As the result of investigations, questions came into the bureau of 
women and children asking v/hat course should be taken when neglected 
children were discovered, or v/hen ha^rd v/orking, deserving v/omen were 
found who, in spite of their best efforts, had neither the time nor money 
to give their children proper care and the necessities of life. Some women 
were astonished to find that girls in telephone and telegraph establishments 
in small towns, where we are prone to believe that there are no abuses, 
were working from 105 to 168 hours per week, and often stayed all night 
in the exchange, even when it was in an isolated place. 



From one small town came this revelation: "There are at least SO wo- 
men in the village who go out working by the day hoeing, cutting sugar 
cane, husking coi-n, scrubbing, washing, and some e^en pitch bundles of 
grain for the threshing machines, Tiiese conditioiis have not been brought 
about by tiie war, but rather, I should say, by tiie liquor evil, for thei-e 
are a great many widows and women v/hose husbands drink and do not 
properly support their families. Some of these women leave small children 
at home to look after themselves while they go out to work by the day. 
Others go out just to be earning a little extra money. They have formed 
sort of a union so there is no cutting down of wages, and I believe they 
are getting $2.00 per day this fall, which I am sure they consider good 
wages for a ten-hour day." 

A summary of the Minnesota hour laws for wosnen and tiie minimum 
wage orders will not be out of order here. 

The Minnesota hour law for women provides that women shall not 
work more than 58 hours a week in mercantile establishments anywhere 
in the state; and 58 hours in factories and mechanical establishments 
outside of cities of the first and second ciass. The law limits the employ- 
ment of women in mechanical, manufacturing, telepiione and telegraph 
establishments to 54 houx's in any one week in cities of the first and second 
class. The hours of employment of women in restaurants, eating houses 
and kitchens in connection therewith are limited to 58 hours in one week 
in cities of the first and second class. Minnesota has no law limitiiig the 
employment of women in restaurants outside of cities of the first and second 
class, and no law at all limiting tiie houi's women may work in hotels any- 
where in the state. 

On July 26, 1918, tiie minimum wage commission of Minnesota first 
began to enforce the minimum wage order which provided for a minimum 
of $8.75 in some occupations and $9.00 in otiiers in the larger cities, with a 
slightly lower rate applicable to the small towns in Minnesota. In August 5, 
1919, a new minimum wage order went into effect which provided that in 
towns of 5,000 or over $11.00 should be paid for a 48-hour week or less 
to a worker who has passed the apprenticeship or learner stage, with 
23c for each additional hour over the 48. The rate in municipalities of less 
than 5,000 population is $10.25 per week for a week of 48 hours or less for 
a wage earner who has passed the apprenticeship or beginner's stage, 
with 211/^c per hour for additional hours. 



EXTENT OF THE INVESTIGATION. 

The inquiry upon which this report is based includes communities in 
every county in this state, and relates to 51,361 women wage earners em- 
ployed in all the important branches of industry, mercantile work, personal 
service, telegraph and telephone, and other employment. It is unfortunate 
that in many instances the occupation was given in rather an indefinite 
way; and the absence of information regarding the trade processes has 
made it impossible to establish a close relationship between prevalence 
of long hours, low wages, and types of employment and trade processes. 
In so far as this was found possible, every age and wage group is represented 
in this study. 

It is to be regretted that there are no extensive wage statistics available 
in the state of Minnesota upon which to base comparisons. There is no 
doubt, however, of the value of the present data as a means of determining 
the adequacy of such wages in the light of the present cost of living. The 
hours of labor, the extent of dependency of others upon the wage earners 
studied, their marital condition, nativity, etc., will be shown to have a value 
both as bearing upon law and law enforcement, and upon the social condi- 
tions and personal responsibilities of the workers. A special study of 
age, wages and occupation in the city of Minneapolis, is also included in this 
report, and is intended to deal more specifically with special industries 
and the conditions that prevail in the largest population center of the 
state of Minnesota. This study was made at the instigation of the Minne- 
apolis Y. W. C. A. and revealed some very striking conditions in that city. 



INDUSTRIES AND WAGES. 

Table I. A general classification of industries and the distribution of 
women wage earners in these industries, shows the following distribution: 



Class of I 


id 


ustry 


Number of 
Wage Earners 


Per Cent 
Wage Earners 




17,810 

13,608 

3,167 

6,248 

10,528 


34.7 




26.5 




6 2 




12.1 




20.5 










Total . 


51,361 


100.0 







As there has been no recent census of women in industry, it is impossi- 
ble to estimate with any degree of accuracy the proportion of the women 
wage earners represented in this inquiry out of the total number of women 
wage earners in the state of Minnesota at the time of the investigation. 

It is evident that the largest proportion of women wage earners con- 
sidered in this investigation was in the manufacturing industry, and that 
the smallest number were employed in the telephone and telegraph service 
of the state. 

While it is not possible from the data collected to ascertain the charac- 
ter of preparation or experience of the workers in relation to their wages. 
and while we are not able to ascertain the grading of workers in particular 
trade and trade processes, the fundamental fact is the average wage found 
in the various occupational classes considered in this report. The follow- 
ing table shows the distribution of women wage earners according to wages 
and occupational classes. 



6 



Table II. Showing occupational classes according to weekly wages of 
women workers. 

NUMBER EARNING SPECIFIED WAGES BY INDUSTRY 





Total 

Number 

of Women 






INDUSTRY 






Weekly Wages 
Earned 


Manu- 
facturing 


Mercantile 


Telegraph 

and 
Telephone 


Service 


All Other 
Industries 


Under $ 3 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

S 

9 


109 
169 
414 
1,309 
2,016 
2,211 
4,640 
6,591 


15 

28 

33 

112 

472 

755 

2,013 

2,790 


31 

45 

102 

258 

567 

556 

1,089 

2,166 


1 

14 

19 

48 

84 

139 

322 

632 


51 
54 
217 
748 
712 
610 
859 
670 


11 
28 
43 
143 
181 
151 
357 
333 


10 

11 

12 

13 

14 


6,437 
3,271 
4,253 
2,758 
2,525 


2,511 

1,371 

1,775 

973 

962 


1,944 
727 

1,369 
712 
641 


620 
539 
146 
206 
75 


550 
181 
243 
172 
314 


812 
453 
720 
695 
533 


15 

16 

17 

18 

19 


3,553 
1,574 
1,135 

1,884 
954 


1,085 
597 
433 
579 
199 


1,027 
346 
260 
447 
171 


86 
61 
25 
29 
30 


223 

48 
32 
70 
47 


1,132 
522 
385 
759 
507 


20 

21 

22 

23 

24. 

25 

Over 25 


1,193 
626 
429 
496 
148 
783 
698 

1,185 


271 

110 

70 

87 

26 

84 

109 

350 


320 

74 

56 

90 

24 

167 

107 

312 


21 
14 
5 
6 
2 
2 
5 
36 


39 

25 

6 

15 

7 

109 

56 

190 


542 
403 
292 
298 
89 
421 
421 


No wage given .... 


297 




51,361 


17,810 


13,608 


3,167 


6,248 


10,528 



It is evident that the above figures relate to a wide range of wage 
groups, and that a comparatively small proportion of the workers, 692 or 
1.35 per cent, received less than $5.00 per week, while 698, or practically 
the same proportion received more than $25 per week. When we consider 
the various occupational classes, we find that the mercantile establishments 
and personal service show the largest proportion of wage earners with a 
wage of less than $5 per week, and the smallest proportion of wage earners 
with a wage of over $25 per week. 

If we may venture a classification of the wage groups represented in the 
present investigation as indicated by the above table, we would suggest 
the following grouping as indicative of the relation between the wage and 
the standard of living possible within these wage groups: 



Wage Group Economic Class 

Below $10.00 per week Below subsistence line 

$10 00 -$14.00 per week Minimum subsistence 

$15,(K)-$19.00 per week Normal subsistence 

$20 00 and over Normal standard 



The above grouping, while open to challenge because of the arrange- 
ment of variation and the cost of living, represents, nevertheless, standards 
which can at least roughly be recognized as falling between designations 
chosen for this classification. The only other method of classifying the 
wage groups would have been to assume that $], which is the mini- 
mum recognized in the state of Minnesota, represents a fixed and economi- 
cally true standard. With the constant fluctuation in prices, such classi- 
fication is hardly feasible. It must also be recognized that what was es- 



sential to know from the point of view of this subject, was not only to 
discover the number of women wage earners receiving a wage below and 
above the minimum wage scale, but to discover, at least in a general v/ay, 
the extent of the fluctuation in wages above the minimum, and it is for 
this reason that this classification was adopted. 

In accordance with this classification, we have endeavored to classify 
the 51,361 workers studied with the following results: 

Table III. Showing number and per cent of woman wage earners ac- 
cording to wage groups and occupational classes. 



PERCENTAGES AT DIFFERENT WAGES IN DIFFERENT INDUSTRIES 





Total 
Number 


PER CENT 


Wage 


Manu- 
faturing 


Mercantile 


Telephone 

and 
Telegraph 


Service 


All 

Other 
Industries 


Total 
Per Cent 


$3-9 

10-14 

15-19 

20-25 

25 + 

No wage 
given 


17,459 

19,244 

9,100 

3,675 

698 

1,185 

51,361 


6,218 or 

35.6% 

7,592 or 

39 . 5 % 

2,893 or 

31.8% 

648 or 

17.6% 

109 or 

15.6% 

350 or 

29 . 5 % 

17,810 


4,814 or 

27.5% 

5,393 or 

28 . % 

2,251 or 

24.7% 

731 or 

19 . 9 % 

107 or 

15.4% 

312 or 

26.3% 

13,608 


1,259 or 

7.2% 

1,586 or 

8.2% 

231 or 

2.6% 

50 or 

1.4% 

5 or 

7 or 

36 or 

3.2% 
3,167 


3,921 or 

22 . 5 % 

1,460 or 

7.6% 

420 or 

4.6% 

201 or 

5.5% 

56 or 

8.0% 

190 or 

16.0% 

6,248 


1,247 or 

7.2% 

3.213 or 

16.7% 

3,305 or 

36.3% 

2,045 or 

55.6% 

421 or 

60.3% 

297 or 

25.0% 

10,528 


100. 
100. 
100. 
100. 
100. 
100. 



An analysis of the above table shows that out of a total of 17,459 wage 
earners receiving less than $10 a week, the largest proportion are found 
in the manufacturing industries, with the mercantile erap'ioyes next ia im- 
portance. The remarkable fact, however, shown by this table, is that 34.05 
per cent of all the women wage earners considered in this investigation re- 
ceived less than a minimum subsistence wage. With over a third of the 
wage earners studied receiving less than a subsistence wage, the effects of 
the war upon wages are not nearly as obvious as it has been claimed. 

When we consider the minimum subsistence group of wage earners, we 
find that they include 19,244 or 37.49 per cent of the total number of 
women wage earners considered. In other words, 71.54 per cent, or very 
close to three-fifths of 51,361 wage earners considered, received sufficient 
wages for only a bare existence or less. The largest proportion of the wage 
earners receiving wages for a minimum subsistence is found in manufac- 
turing industries. The workers included in the wage group designated as 
of normal standard includes 4,373 or 8.53 per cent of the workers included 
ia this study. This constitutes only one-twelfth of the half hundred thousand 
wage earners considered, most of whom were employed in industries outside 
of manufacturing or mercantile establishments. The classification we have 
attempted is perhaps out of proportion with the ordinary wages of pre- 
war times. It must be recognized that living costs have increased from 50 

per cent to 55 per cent during the period preceding the war in 1914 and 
June, 1918. This reduces the purchasing value of a $9.00 weekly wage to 
$6.00, and of a $14.00 weekly wage to $9.33, if we admit the increase in the 
necessities of life to have been only 50 per cent, and not 55 per cent. It 



$ 



should be remembered also that the lower the wa.ge the greater the propor- 
tion spent for food; and the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics found 
upon investigation that between the mid-summer, of 1914, and June, 1918, 
the cost of 16 essential articles of food increased 62 per cent. 

"We have discussed the wages of the various classes of workers, and 
their relation to their present purchasing value as compared with the values 
prior to the summer of 1914, when the war broke out in Europe. There 
is still another important element in the relation between wages and living 
standard which must be considered, and that is the family obligation of the 
individual workers or contribution to the family support. 



The following tables show the distribution of women wage earners 
according to their economic relation to the family. 



Table IV. Showing number and proportion of wage earners contribut- 
ing and not contributing towards the support of their families, according 
to weekly wages. 



Weekly Wage 


Contributing 


Not 
Contributing 


Total 


Under $10 


22,011 

4,417 

1,432 

475 

137 

211 


19,260 

2,009 

722 

246 

46 

395 


41,271 
6,426 
2,154 


$10-14 


15-19 


20-25 


25 and over 




Not given 


606 






Total 


28,683 


22,678 


51,361 





Table IV shows that 28,683 or 55.8 per cent of all the wage earners 
studied make some contribution towards the sunport of their families; and 
that 22,011 or 76.7 per cent of the 28,683 contributing towards the sunport 
of their families, were receiving a v/age of less than $10.00 per v^eek. 
With 41,271 wage earners or 80.35 per cent receiving less than $10.00 per 
week, and with 22,011 or 52.8 per cent of those receiving less than $10.00 
a v/eek contributing towards the support of their families, it is hardly possi- 
ble to excuse low wages for women workers on the ground that they have 
no family responsibility. It is of course difficult to ascertain in an investi- 
gation of this character, the extent of this family responsibility; but in the 
discussion of the figures relating to women wage earners responsible for 
the support of the children, we may be able to form some conception of the 
responsibilities of at least this group of workers. 



M.ARITAL CONDITION AND FAMILY SUPPORT. 

In the study of the relation between support and family relationships, 
the only adequate data obtainable related to the marital condition cf the 
women wage earners. The following table shows the distribution of the 
51,361 women wage earners studied according to weekly wages, family 
support, and marital condition. 



9 



Table V. Showing distribution of wage earners according to weekly 
wages, marital condition and contribution towards family support: 



MARITAL CONDITION 





Total 
Women 


SINGLE 


MARRIED 


WIDOWED 


Weekly 
Wage 
Earned 


Contributing to 
Family Support 


Contributing to 
Family Support 


Contributing to 
Family Support 




Yes 


No 


Yes 


No 


Yes 


No 


Under $3.... 
3.... 

4 

5. . . . 

6 

7... . 

8 

9. .. . 


109 
169 
414 
1,309 
2,016 
2,211 
4,6i0 
6,591 


14 

28 

80 

246 

722 

866 

1,923 

2,922 


77 
108 
248 
851 
993 
951 
1,828 
2,358 


8 

15 

34 

71 

78 

173 

391 

538 


4 

6 

-11 

54 

75 

77 

173 

268 


2 
9 

17 

. 32 

47 

37 

120 

179 


2 

1 

9 

22 

42 

40 

68 

107 


10 

11 

12 

13 

14 


6,437 
3,271 
4,253 
2,758 
2,525 


2,759 
1,522 
1,758 
1,293 
1,075 


2,380 

1,127 

1,465 

981 

842 


600 
303 
4S6 
209 
205 


234 
104 
ISO 
92 
229 


191 

86 

156 

72 

83 


79 
31 
60 
39 
28 


15. . . . 

16 

17. ... 
18. .. . 
19. .. . 


3,553 
1,574 
1,135 
1,884 
954 


1,651 
778 
564 
853 
489 


1 222 
'479 
382 
641 
343 


296 
140 

97 
223 

52 


130 
62 
29 
45 
20 


106 
42 
24 
48 
17 


48 
23 
7 
28 
10 


20. .. . 

21. . . . 

22... . 

23.... 

24. .. . 

25. .. . 

Over 25 

No wage 
given 


1,193 
026 
429 
496 
14.S 
783 
698 

1,185 


582 
291 
229 
240 
02 
362 
320 

382 


378 
226 
124 
178 
53 
279 
243 

503 


102 
64 
31 
31 
13 
51 
49 

157 


42 
18 
21 
15 
5 
22 
21 

72 


38 
12 

8 
11 

4 
33 
29 

29 


18 
7 
4 
5 
3 
10 
14 

17 


Total 


51,361 


22,011 


19,260 


4,417 


2,009 


1,432 


722 



To make analysis of these figures less difficult, we have summarized 
the above table in order to indicate wage classification, and the relation 
between wages and marital condition. 



Table VI. Showing wage groups and marital condition by family 
support: 



Weekly 


Total 


SINGLE 


MARRIED 


WIDOWED 


Wage Group 


Support 


No 
Support 


Support 


No 
Support 


Support 


No 
Support 


Under SIO.OO. 
$10-14 

15-19 

20-25.... ;. . 

25+ 

Not given. . . . 


• 17,459 

19,244 

9,100 

3,675 

698 

1,185 


6,801 
8,407 
4,335 
1,766 
320 
382 


7,414 
6,795 
3,067 
1,2.38 
243 
503 


1,308 

1,803 

808 

292 

49 

157 


008 
8:39 
280 
123 
21 
72 


443 

5S8 

237 

106 

29 

29 


291 

237 

116 

47 

14 

17 


. Total 


51,361 


22,011 


19,260 


4,417 


2,009 


1,432 


722 



iQ 



TABLE VI~Continued 



Weekly Total 


DIVORCED 


DESERTED 


SEPARATED 


Wnge Group 


Support 


No 
Support 


Support 


No 
Support 


Support 


No 
Support 


Under $10.00 


124 

179 

100 

48 

13 

11 


88 
90 
37 
17 

n 

7 


56 

54 

21 

5 

1 




93 
76 
25 
12 


145 

162 

65 

21 


$10-14 


28 

14 

3 


14-19 


20-25 

25+ 




1 


5 










Total 


475 


246 


137 


46 


211 


395 





The above figures indicate the rather surprising fact that out of a total 
of 6,426 married women working, 4,417 or 68.74 per cent were making a 
contribution towards the support of the family. Whether this contribution 
is to be interpreted merely as work for pin money, or as a means of mater- 
ially supporting the family, is not possible to ascertain with any degree of 
accuracy. The individual records of workers made in the past have shown 
that pin money work among married women is not very common, and that 
usually it is of short duration. 

Perhaps it would be easier to preceive the prevalence of family support 
according to marital condition if we consider the following percentage 
table. 

Table VII. Number and percentage distribution of marital condition 
of women wage earners by family support: 





Support 


No Support 


Total 


Marital Condition 


Number 


Percentage 


Number 


Percentage 


Number 




22,011 

4,417 

1,432 

4,075 

137 

211 


53.3 

68.7 
66.4 
65.8 
74.8 
34.8 


19,260 

2,009 

722 

246 

46 

395 


46.6 
31.2 
33.5 
34.1 
25.1 
65.1 


41,371 
6,426 


Married 




Divorced 

Deserted 


721 
183 




606 






Total 


28,683 


55.8 


22,678 


44.2 


51,361 





The evidence as indicated by the above figures seem to show that with 
the exception of the deserted women, where no economic adjustment is 
made and where family conditions are most unsettled, the married women 
most frequently contribute towards the family support, as more than two- 
thirds of the women employed contributed towards the support of their 
families, while in the case of deserted women workers, 74.8 per cent con- 
tributed towards the support of their families. Where only a separation 
has taken place, responsibility for family support is least frequent. To 
what extent this family support involves care of children will be considered 
presently. 

MARITAL CONDITION AND SUPPORT OF CHILDREN. 

Where industrial life of the mother is made necessary because of the 
economic necessity involved by the need for child support, the problem 
of the mother is most serious and the responsibility of the state most grave. 

The following table shows the distribution of mothers according to 
marital condition and number of children. 



11 



Table VIII. Showing working mothers according to their 
condition and the number of their children: 



marital 





NUMBER OF CHILDREN IN FAMILY 


Total With 


Condition 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


« 


7 


8 


Children 


Married 

Widowed 

Divorced 

Deserted 

Separated 


1,055 

427 

223 

53 

181 


472 

229 

70 

29 

72 


271 
94 
33 
11 
23 


166 

53 

7 

15 

13 


74 
IS 

1 
7 

1 


55 
4 
4 
1 


7 
2 
3 


3 


2,205 
827 
341 
116 






290 










Total 


1,939 


972 


432 


254 


101 


64 


14 


3 


3,779 



DIVORCED 


DESERTED 


SEPARATED 


Contributing to Family Support 


Contributing to Family Support 


Contributing to Family Support 


Yes 


No 


Yes 


No 


Yes 


No 


1 










1 












2 


3 
5 
12 
14 
29 
60 


1 
7 
16 
11 
20 
33 


3 

6 

7 

4 

13 

23 


1 

1 
5 
3 

7 
11 


2 

6 

7 

16 

28 

34 


5 

8 
12 
19 
40 

58 


49 
37 

48 
22 
23 


31 
12 
31 
10 
6 


21 
9 

11 
6 

7 


7 
1 

2 

1 
3 


26 
10 
25 

7 
8 


60 
29 
31 
26 
16 


41 
21 
10 

16 
12 


19 
4 
6 
4 

4 


12 
4 
3 
2 


1 
1 


7 
6 
5 
6 
1 


20 
14 

S 




18 


1 


5 








13 
6 


5 
1 
4 
3 
2 
2 
7 
7 


4 

1 




4 


7 






5 




i 

3 
1 
3 


••> 


7 


' _ 


3 


3 






2 


14 






7 


13 
11 


1 


i 




5 


2 










475 


246 


137 


46 


211 


395 



This table shows 3,779 mothers with children at work or 7.5 per cent 
of the total number of wage earners considered in this study; and of this 
number slightly less than one-half had more than one child. When we 
consider the same figures on the basis oi number of children whose maternal 
care is involved in the mother's industrial life, we find that it involves 
the destinies of 7,206 children below working age, or the child population of 
a city of 25,000 population. It is of course hazardous to say to what extent 
this employment is essential to the economic well-being of the family. It is 
hardly conceivable, however, that any considerable proportion of the mothers 
with more than one child under working age would seek employment merely 
as a diversion, or as a means of securing pin money. 

If we consider only those cases where the mother is not living in normal 
married life, we find 1,574 families with 1,952 children of which 1,500 were 
supported by widows. These figures are particularly significant because 



12 



they show that the "Mothers' Pensions" are hardly sufficient to support 
the mothers with tlieir children; or at least, that the standard set for the 
fa.milies by the amounts granted through the "Mothers' Pensions" is hardly 
sufficient to protect the children either against an abnormally low standard 
of living, or against the lack of motherly care that comes through the 
mothers' entrance into industrial life. 

It is sometimes alleged that the cities are more fi-equently favorable 
to the employment of married women, and that in the smaller^ communities 
the demands upon the families are such as to make the employment of 
the mother less necessary, and hence less frequent. 

An examination of the figures relating to the three cities and the rest 
of the state, shows the following distribution of employment according 
to marital condition and the presence or absence of minor children in the 
family. 

Table IX. Showing distribution of women wage earners according to 
marital condition and presence of children in the family, in the cities of 
Minneapolis, St. Paul, Duluth and the rest of the states. 





Minneapolis 


St. Paul 


Dul 


uth 


Rest of State 


Marital Condition 


With 
Children 


Without 
Children 


With 
Children 


Without 
Children 


With 
Children 


Without 
Children 


With 
Children 


Without 
Children 






17,351 

2,034 

665 

158 

26 

162 


592 

198 

75 

28 

80 


9,033 

988 

334 

120 

19 

84 


18.5' 
88 
49 
14 
29 


3,841 
408 
94 
22 
"l 
31 


379 

191 

05 

20 

46 


10,446 




1,049 

350 

152 

54 

135 


731 


Widowed 


234 
80 




21 




39 






Total 


1,740 


20,396 


973 


11,178 


365 


4,457 


701 


11,551 







Table X. If we eliminate the single women wage earners from con- 
sideration, we find the following distribution of women workers: 





Total Women 


Less Married 
Women 


Fet cent of 
Total 




22,136 

12,151 

4,822 

12,252 


4,785 

2,518 

981 

1,806 


21.6 


St. Paul 


20.7 


Duluth 


20.3 
14.7 






Total 


51,361 


10,082 


19.6 







The above figures show the largest proportion, 21.6 per cent of women 
who are or who have been married, in the city of Minneapolis; while only 
14.7 per cent of the same class of women were found among the workers in 
the state outside the three largest cities. These figures, if representative of 
conditions throughout the state, which no doubt they are, would tend to 
show that the smaller communities do not draw so heavily upon the class 
of women who have been married as do the larger population centers. 

If we consider the proportion of women with children a.s compared with 
those without children, we find the wage earners with children, among 
those not classed as single, distributed as follows: Minneapolis, 36.4 per 
cent; St. Paul, 38.7 per cent; Duluth, 37.2 per cent; and the rest of the 
state, 38.8 per cent. In other words, there was a larger proportion of 
women with children working in the communities outside the three large 
cities than in any cf the cities, while St. Paul showed the largest propor- 
tion of women with children working of any of the other cities. 



13 



WAGES, AGES AND TRADES. 

In order to throw some light upon the relation between wages, ages 
and occupations, we have selected 19 occupations, tor which we had more 
than 200 individual records, and a detailed tabulation of all the data avail- 
able was made. 

We shall endeavor a brief discussion of these occupations on the basis 
of this tabulation. 

UNSKILLED LABOR. 

Table XI. Taking the women wage earners in the unskilled occupa- 
tions or trades, we find the following conditions: 









AGE GROUPS 








Wages per 
Week 


Less than 
IS 


18-21 


22-25 


25-35 


36-45 


46 


Total . 


Less than $10. 

$10-14 

15-19 


20 
4 


26 
11 


13 

10 

2 


48 
51 
11 


51 

33 

19 

3 


44 

13 

6 


202 

122 

38 


20-24 






3 


25 + 






1 






1 
















Total 


24 


37 


26 


110 


106 


63 


366 



The above table shows a distribution of wage groups with 202 or 55.2 
per cent of the 366 women wage earners receiving less than the subsistence 
wage, and 122 or 33.3 per cent with a minimum subsistence wage. In other 
words, 88.5 per cent of the women in the unskilled industries were receiving 
lesf than a wage sufficient for normal subsistence; and of this number, 240 
or 74.1 per cent of the wage earners considered were over 26 years of age, 
while 99 or 30.5 per cent were between 26 and 35 years of age, or the age 
of highest productivity. 

DOMESTIC SERVICE. 

The domestic service problem is perhaps one of the most perplexing 
to householders, and social workers not infrequently seek to solve some 
of the personal problems of their charges by placing them in domestic 
service. Within the last two years we have been told astonishing tales 
about wages paid to domestics. The figures contained in the following 
tables are sufficiently representative to give some conception of the wage 
standards that prevail. 

Table XII. Showing age and wage distribution of 410 domestics in the 
city of Minneapolis. 

AGE GROUPS 



Wages per 
Week 


Less than 
18 


18-21 


22-25 


26-35 


36-45 


45 + 


Total 


Less than $10. 
$10-14 


10 


58 
11 
10 


45 
9 
8 
1 


88 

34 

6 

1 


58 

28 

3 


24 
13 


283 
95 


15-19. 


3 


30 


20-24 




2 


25 + 




























Total 


13, 


79 


63 


129 


89 


37 


410 



With 283 or 69 per cent domestics receiving less than $10.00 per week 
out of a total of 410 such wage earners, it is hardly possible to claim that 
this class of workers is receiving abnormally high wages; 32 only or 7.8 
per cent were found to receive $15.00 a week or over, and none received 



U 



$25.00 a week or more. In the case of the domestic servants, as in the case 
of the unskilled workers, the largest proportion were 26 years of age or 
over, while 122 or 82.3 per cont of the age of highest productivity were 
receiving less than $15.00 a week. 

It must be remembered that the domestics in most cases are receiving 
their maintenance in addition to their wages, and that with the present 
cost of living as high as it is, their wages are only to be considered as a 
comparatively small part of their revenue or wages. 

KITCHEN HELPERS. 

By kitchen helpers, for the purposes of this study, is meant workers 
in restaurants, hotels, etc., who may be getting all or part of their meals 
at their place of employment, but do not reside there. The following table 
shows the distribution of these workers according to age and wage 
groups. 

Table XIII. Showing the distribution of 298 kitchen helpers according 
to their age and wage groups in Minneapolis. 

AGE GROUPS 



Wages per 
Week 


Less than 
18 


18-21 


22-25 


26-35 


36-45 


46 + 


Total 


Less than $10. 
$10-14 


15 


61 
6 


36 
15 


63 

16 

2 

1 


44 
10 

1 


21 
5 


240 
52 






3 












1 








1 


i 




2 














Total. . . . 


15 


67 


52 


82 


56 


26 


298 



This group of wage earners seems to be one of the lowest in the scale 
from the point of view of wage standards, as 240 or 80.5 per cent received 
less than $10.00 per week, while practically all of these wage eai-ners re- 
ceived less than a normal subsistence wage. It is also to be observed that 
there is no perceptible difference in the age distribution among the kitchen 
helpers as compared with the domestic servants. 

WAITRESSES. 

Another important occupation of the type generally classed as personal 
service, is waiting in restaurants and other food dispensing establishments. 
Of this type of worker, 525 were found among the women wage earners 
studied. They were distributed as follows: 



Table XIV. Showing distribution of 525 waitresses according to age 
and wage groups in the city of Minneapolis. 









AGE GROUPS 








Wages per 
Week 


Less than 
18 


18-21 


22-25 


25-35 


36-45 


46 + 


Total 


Less than $10 
$10-14 


37 

8 


155 
29 


109 

25 

1 


111 

28 
4 


9 

4 


3 

2 


424 

96 

5 














25 + 
















Total 


45 


184 


135 


143 


13 


5 


525 



_ The wage of waitresses, as indicated by the above table, shows 424 or 
80.7 per cent receiving less than a subsistence wage, and 520 or 99 per cent 



with a wage sufficient only for a bare subsistence. From the point of view 
of &E8 distribu-tion however, these low paid wage earners show a lower age 
than either the domestics or the kitchen helpers, a condition that is naturally 
characteristic of the occupation. To what extent wages are supplemented 
by the tipping system can, of course, not be estimated with any degree of 
accuracy. 

Vr'ASHF.RWO!V!EN AND LAUNDRESSES. 

One aspect of domestic service which is more or less irregular is that of 
washerwomen and laundresses, particularly those v/orking in private homes. 

It is unfortunate that the figui-es do not give the classification of these 
workers according to place of employment, as there is a very considerable 
difference in the condition of wo'-k, hours and regularity. There are how- 
ever, certain conditions which are worthy of consideration, and which are 
evidenced by the following statistical table. 

Table XV. Showing age and wage distribution of 472 washerwomen 
and laundresses in Minneapolis. 

AGE GROUPS 



Wages per 
Week 


Less than 
18 


18-21 


22-25 


26-35 


36-45 


46 + 


Total 


Less than $10. 

$10-14 

15-^9 


3G 
3 


54 

25 

3 


42 

36 

3 


59 
75 

7 


37 

41 

9 


26 
15 

1 


254 

195 

23 


20-24 






25 + 

































Total 


39 


82 


81 


141 


87 


42 


472 



Out of a total of 472, the above table shows 254 or 55.9 per cent received 
a wage insufficient for a normal subsistence. Considering the character of 
the work and the increase in the cost of laundry service of the last two 
years, the above table is scant evidence of unreasonable labor cost in the 
laundry industry- The above v^age distribution is particularly striking when 
we consider the age distribution of the workers, v;hich shows only 121 or 
25.6 per cent of the v/orkers under 22 years of age. In other words, they 
were most mature workers and hence dependent in most instances upon 
their own earnings for a livelihood. 

COOKS. 

As in the case of the laundresses, we have no classification of the 
cooks according to place of employment, but as the fig'jres v/ere gathered 
mostly from business establishro.ents, it is safe to assum.e that they were 
employed in restaurants, lunch rooms, and other eating establishments. 
The figures gathered relate to 220 such employes, the distribution of v/hich 
according to wage and age groups is shown in the following table: 

Table XVI. Showing distribution of 220 cooks according to wage and 
age groups as found in the city of Minneapolis. 

AGE GROUPS 



Wages per 
Week 


Less than 
18 


18-21 


22-25 


26-35 


36-45 


46 + 


Total 


Less than $10 

$10-14 

15-19 


2 

1 


14 
8 
2 


12 

21 

3 


20 

38 

14 

2 

2 


13 

37 

15 

2 


4 
9 
1 


65 

114 

35 


20-24 . . . 




4 


25 + 










2 
















Total 


3 


24 


36 


76 


67 


14 


220 



16 



With a total of 65 or 29.5 per cent of the cooks included in this study 
receiving a wage of less than $10.00 per week, and 114 or 51.8 per cent re- 
ceiving between $10.00 and $14.00 per week, the cooks in the various estab- 
lishments studied do not appear to be a highly paid group of wage earners. 

It must be remembered, however, that, considering the present cost of 
food and the fact that in practically all instances the cooks received one 
or more meals a day in their place of employment, the wage standards 
while low are comparatively higher than in some of the other occupations 
studied. As in the case of the washerwomen and laundresses, the workers 
in this occupation are older than in other occupations. 



MACHINE OPERATORS. 

The largest single group of workers studied in Minneapolis was ma- 
chine operators in various industries. The types of work and condition of 
employment varied with the industry and the establishments considered. 
The wage and age distribution have a direct relation to the standai'ds 
of living which is more or less independent of the industry studied. Some 
very striking conditions were revealed by the wage study of this group of 
workers, as indicated by the following table. 

Table XVII. Showing distribution of 2,540 machine operators in Minne- 
apolis according to age and wage groups. 

AQE GROUPS 



Wages per 
Week 


Less than 
18 


18-21 


22-25 


26-35 


36-45 


46 + 


Total 


Less than $10 
$10-14 

15-19 

20-24 


78 

29 

4 

1 


228 

311 

90 

11 


140 

316 

167 

24 


154 

313 

235 

49 

3 


73 

146 

SO 

15 


16 
41 
16 


689 

1,156 

592 

100 


25 + 




3 
















Total 


112 


640 


647 


754 


314 


73 


2,540 



As in the case of most women workers studied, there seems to be a 
disproportionate number of wage earners receiving less than $10.00 per 
week, as there were 689 women workers at this wage out of a total of 2,540 
or 27.1 per cent. When we consider those receiving a subsistence wage 
of between $10.00 and $14.00 per week, we find that they constitute 1,156 
or 45.5 per cent of the total machine operators studied. In other words, 
almost three-fourths of the total operators considered in this study received 
only a minimum subsistence wage or less, while only 103 or 3.9 per cent, 
received a living wage or more. Of these workers only 752 or 29.9 per cent 
were less than 22 years of age. This would seem to indicate that among 
the operators as among many of the other workers, those who m.ight be 
presumed to be only partially dependent upon their own earnings because of 
their age, were not nearly as numerous as might be presumed. The figures 
of dependency discussed elsewhere only strengthen the accuracy of this 
contention, and verify the general conclusion regarding the unwarranted 
belief that much of the industrial wage of women workers is merely used 
to piece out incomes, but is not depended upon for full individual mainten- 
ance. 

SEAMSTRESSES AND SEWING. 

The figures relating to this occupation are not perhaps commensurate 
with the large number of such workers employed in various fields of indus- 
try- They are, however, significant as indicating wage and age distribution. 



17 



Table XVIII. Showing the age and wage distribution of 521 women 
workers in Minneapolis working as seamstresses, and in other occupations 
requiring sewing. 

AGE GROUPS 



Wages per 
Week 


Less than 
18 


18-21 


22-25 


26-35 


36-45 


46 + 


Total 


Less than $10. 
$10-14 

15-19 

20 24 


31 

12 

1 


30 

56 

5 


20 
70 
13 


16 

88 

32 

3 

1 


17 
50 
13 

1 


14 

43 

5 


128 

319 

69 

4 


25 + 










1 
















Total... . 


44 


91 


103 


140 


81 


62 


521 



Of the total of 521 women wage earners engaged in this class of work, 
128 or 24.6 per cent received less than a subsistence wage, while 319 or 
61.2 per cent received a mere subsistence wage of between $10.00 and 
$14.00 a week. In all, more than 85 per cent of this class of wage earners 
received a mere subsistence wage or less. In the case of this group of 
workers, as in all others considered, there is no evidence of a large pro- 
portion of young girls working for pin money. 



PRINTERS AND PRESSERS. 

The printers and pressers represent a more or less skilled occupation 
requiring training and experience. The distribution of wages of this 
group of workers should therefore show a very considerable advantage 
over such occupations as waitresses, seamstresses, etc. This is actually 
the case as is shown by the following table. 

Table XIX. Showing age and wage distribution of 332 printers and 
pressers in the city of Minneapolis. 

AGE GROUPS 



Wages per 
Week , 


Less than 
18 


18-21 


22-25 


26-35 


36-45 


46 + 


Total 




27 
5 
2 


33 
61 

7 


17 

88 

4 

1 


5 

55 

3 

1 


3 

13 

2 




85 


$10-14 

15-19 

20-24 .... 


1 
1 


223 

19 

2 


25 + 




1 


2 




3 














Total 


34 


102 


110 


64 


20 


2 


332 



While it is evident that only a comparatively small number of this class 
of wage earners (85 or 25.6 per cent) receive less than a living wage, the 
vast majority of them (223 or 67.1 per cent) receive a subsistence wage only. 
Considering the extent of the organization of this trade, and the skill and 
experience required, it seems that little advance has been made in the 
wages when 92.7 per cent of the workers receive a mere subsistence wage 
or less. 

PACKERS. 

The women employed as packers in stores and shops represent an un- 
skilled group, not likely to become organized and fluctuating with the 
seasonal changes in the various lines of business in which they are employed. 
The distribution of the 424 packers included in this study is shown in the 
following table. 



18 



Table XX. Showing distribution of 424 packers according to age and 
wage groups in the city of Minneapolis. 

AGE GROUPS 



Wages per 
Week 


Less than 
18 


18-21 


22-25 


26-35 


36-45 


46 + 


Total 


■ 
Less than $10. 

$10-14 

15 19 


73 

25 
4 


51 

83 

36 




18 

42 

11 

1 


20 

17 
7 


6 

17 

1 


2 
3 


170 

187 
59 


20-24 




7 


25 + 






1 




1 
















Total... . 


102 


176 


72 


44 


25 


5 


424 



The above figures show a very unusual number of young wage earners, 
as 278 or 65.6 per cent were less than 22 years of age, while the wages 
were commensurately low with 170 or 40.4 per cent receiving less than a 
subsistence wage and 187 or 44.1 per cent receiving only a mere 
subsistence wage. It is interesting to compare in this connection the wages 
of printers and pressers with the wages of packers which represent a 
comparatively unskilled occupation. In the case of the former we find a 
larger proportion of workers receiving a subsistence wage, but in the case 
of the packers the proportion of those receiving above the subsistence 
wage is 15.5 per cent as compared with the printers and pressers with only 
7.3 per cent receiving more than a mere subsistence wage. When to this 
fact we add the greater maturity of the printers and pressers, we notice 
that skill has not been a very potent factor in determining wages, and that 
some means of standardizing is essential. 



SALESWOMEN. 

One of the most common occupations among the wage earning women 
is as saleswomen in mercantile establishments. The 1,227 women in this 
occupation studied in connection with this inquiry, show the following age 
and wage distribution. 



Table XXI. Showing the age and wage disti-ibution of 1,227 saleswomen 
in the city of Minneapolis. 

AGE GROUPS 



Wages per 
Week 


Less than 
18 


18-21 


22-25 


26-35 


,36-45 


46 + 


Total 


Less than $10. 
$10-14 

1.5-19 

20-24 


120 
22 

4 


172 

145 
21 

1 


96 

146 

32 

4 


65 
150 

85 
18 
12 


22 

42 

23 

6 

9 


4 
18 
4 
2 
4 


479 

523 

169 

31 


25 + 




25 












Total... . 


146 


339 


278 


330 


102 


32 


1,227 



When we consider the distribution of wages in the above table, we find 
that 479 or 39.0 per cent of the wage earners in this occupation receive 
less than a subsistence wage, while 523 or 43.4 per cent of this group 
of wage earners received a mere living wage. We find, however, in this 
group of workers a reasonable proportion of workers receiving above a living 
wage to the extent of 56 or 4.5 per cent. It is also evident from the above 
table that age counts as a factor in the increase of wages. 



19 



OFFICE ASSISTANTS. 

This group of wage earners represents a semi-professional class with 
a gradual but regular increase in wages. The fact that schooling and 
official training are sUU required for this type of work has no doubt con- 
tributed towards the maintenance of a reasonably higher standard of 
wages as compared with the prevailing wages in the industries and in mer- 
cantile establishments. The prevailing wages affecting 1,913 such workers 
studied in this inquiry are indicated in the following table. 

Table XXII. Showing age and wage distribution of 1,913 office assis- 
tants in the city of Minneapolis. 

AGE GROUPS 



Wages per 
Week 


Less than 
18 


18-21 


22-25 


26-35 


30- 45 


46 + 


Total 


Less than $10. 
$10-14 

15-19 

20 24 

25 + 


79 
01 
10 

7 


127 
347 
134 

87 
6 


19 

239 

195 

68 

14 


12 

141 

140 

92 

36 


2 
17 
28 
16 
13 


4 
2 
9 
4 
4 


243 
807 
516 
274 
73 








Total. . . . 


157 


701 


535 


421 


76 


23 


1,913 



It is clear from the above table that the wages of these workers are 
considerably above the average so far discovered, as only 213 or 12.7 per 
cent received less than a subsistence wage, while 347 or 18.1 per cent re- 
ceived $20.00 a week or more, which is a normal living wage under war 
conditions of prices. Even in this group, however, there were 1,050 wage 
earners or niore than half of the total studied receiving a minimum sub- 
sistence wage or less. 

The comparatively high wage standard that prevails in this type of 
occupation is particularly striking, because it involves workers whose rela- 
tion to their employment does not lend itself to organization, and 858 or 
44.8 per cent w^ere less than 22 years of age, while the largest single group 
was between 18 and 21 years of age. 

STENOGRAPHERS. 

Closely allied to the office assistants are the stenographers, of which 
3,285 were studied in connection with the present inquiry. While this 
type of wage earners does not require a greater amount of general training, 
they do require preparation which necessitates schooling especially designed 
to fit the person for the task to be performed. The 3,285 stenographers 
studied were distributed according to age and wage groups as follows: 

Table XXIII. Showing age and wage groups of 3,285 stenographers in 
the city of Minneapolis. 

AGE GROUPS 



Wages per 
Week 


Less than 
IS 


18-21 


22-25 


26-35 


30-45 


46 + 


Total 


Less than $10. 


43 
71 
14 


82 

487 

382 

91 

13 


20 
291 
566 
199 

26 


8 

99 

387 

267 

84 


4 
21 
40 
43 
30 




157 


$10-14 

15-19 

20 24 

25 + 


3 
3 

4 


972 

1,392 

007 

157 








Total. . . . 


130 


1.055 


1,102 


845 


138 


15 


3,285 



The above table shows several rather striking facts. The age distribu- 
tion shows a constantly increasing number of workers with advancing age 



20 



up to 35, while the number of those under 18 is negligible. The proportion 
of those receiving less than a subsistence wage was only 157 or 4.7 per cent, 
which is less than in any group of wage earners so far considered, while 
the proportion of those receiving over and above a mere subsistence v/'age 
was 2,155 or 65.5 per cent, the largest proportion so far found in any group 
of workers considered. The fact that only 32 out of the 157 stenographers 
receiving less than $10.00 a week were over 22 years of age, would seem to 
indicate that skill and experience play a rather important part in determin- 
ing the wage in this class of work which, like the office assistants, repre- 
sents a semi-professional group. 



BOOKKEEPERS. 

The next occupation which shows a tendency towards larger wage 
standards as compered with the other occupations considered in this study, 
is the group classed as bookkeepers. They belong to what might be called 
a semi-professional class which requires a considerable amount of training 
and experience particularly related to the employment and the industry or 
business in which the worker is employed. The 1,189 bookkeepers studied 
are distributed according to age and wages as follows: 



Table XXIV. Showing age and wage distribution of 1,189 bookkeepers 
employed in the city of Minneapolis. 

AGE GROUPS 



Wages per 
Week 


Less than 
18 


18-21 


22-25 


20-35 


36-45 


46 + 


Total 


Less than $10. 
$10-14 

15-19 

20-24 


5 

17 

3 


23 
120 
100 

17 
4 


11 
92 

171 

51 

9 


3 

68 
189 
107 

C7 


2 

16 
48 
25 
21 


3 

4 
6 
5 
2 


47 
317 
517 
205 


25 + 




103 








Total.. . 


25 


264 


334 


434 


112 


20 


1,189 



The above table shows that among the bookkeepers there were prac- 
tically no workers receiving less than a subsistence wage, although there 
were 317 or 26.6 per cent of the bookkeepers receiving between $10.00 and 
$14.00 a week or a mere subsistence wage. It is interesting to note that 
880 or 64 per c^nt of the workers considered were of the ages of highest 
productivity, as they range between 22 and 45 years of age. In point of 
v/ages, 517 or 43.5 per cent of these VAorkers received a minimum living 
wage as compared with 1,392 or 42.3 per cent of t)ie stenographers classed 
in the same group. When, however, we consider the bookkeepers receiving 
$25.00 a week or more, we find that they constitute 103 or 8.7 per cent of the 
total as compared with 157 or 4.8 per cent of the stenographers classed in 
the same group. While in the case of the bookkeepers, the proportion of 
those receiving less than a minimum subsistence wage was less than half 
the proportion of those receiving $25.00 a week or more, in the case of the 
stenographers the proportion of these two wage groups was equal. 



TELEPHONE OPERATORS. 

In view of the fact that the data relating to the telephone operators 
was gathered about the time when there was considerable discontent among 
the wage earners in this group, the statistical data contained in the follow- 
ing table, although limited is of considerable value as indicative of actual 
wage standards. 



21 



Table XXV. Showing the age and wage distribution of 534 telephone 
operators in the city of Minneapolis. 

AQE GROUPS 



Wages per 
Week 


Less than 
18 


18-21 


22-25 


26-35 


36-45 


46 + 


Total 


Less than $10 


30 

32 

2 


43 

125 

25 

5 

1 


17 

105 

26 

10 

1 


7 
47 
36 

5 

1 


1 

10 
3 




98 


$10-14 

iry-19 


2 


321 
92 


20-24 




20 


25 + 








3 












Total... . 


64 


199 


159 


96 


14 


2 


534 



It is evident from the above figures that out of a total of 534 telephone 
operators 98 or 18.3 per cent received less than a minimum subsistence 
wage, while 321 or 60.1 per cent received merely a subsistence wage. In 
other words, four-fifths of the telephone operators considered in this inves- 
tigation were receiving wages which would cover the cost of mere subsis- 
tence or less. Of those receiving at the time of the investigation more than 
$14.00 a week, 82 out of a total of 115 were 22 years of age or more. The 
number of those receiving less than a minimum subsistence wage was 
four times greater than the number of those receiving a living wage. 

GENERAL OFFICE HELP. 

The office helpers comprise a wide range of people with varying 
training and related to business in ways that could with difficulty be desig- 
nated in an investigation of this kind. 

The main value of the figures is perhaps in the fact that it shows a 
large number of workers not classed either as office assistants or steno- 
graphers, or as bookkeepers. The 1,793 office helpers studied, divided into 
age and wage groups, show the following classification: 

Table XXVI. Showing age and wage distribution of 1,793 office helpers 
in the city of Minneapolis. 

AQE GROUPS 



Wages per 
Week 


Less than 
18 


18-21 


22-25 


2fi- 35 


36-45 


46 + 


Total 


Less than $10. 

$10-14 

15-19 


99 
36 


148 

404 

58 

17 

5 


63 

267 

132 

45 

10 


32 

162 

126 

56 

43 


9 
23 
21 
12 
12 


1 

9 

13 

2 

8 


342 
901 
350 


20-24 




132 


25 + 




78 








Total .... 


135 


632 


507 


419 


77 


33 


1,803 



The above table shows the largest proportion of office helpers between 
18 and 21 years of age, and with 1,274 or 71 per cent of the workers under 
26 years of age. 

The wages received by the office helpers show a wide range of distri- 
bution. Those receiving less than a minimum subsistence wage num- 
bered 342 or 19.0 per cent of the total, while those receiving a living wage 
or more numbered 200 or 11.1 per cent. The largest proportion was found, 
however, among those receiving a minimum subsistence wage. This group 
consisted of 901 wage earners or 50.2 per cent of the total. With seven- 
tenths of the wage earners in this group receiving a mere subsistence wage 
or less, the standard of remuneration can hardly be considered high although 
it must be admitted that a large proportion of those employed in this 
field were comparatively young women. 



22 



CASHIERS. 

Although there is a considerable difference in the duties of cashiers, 
depending upon the type of business and its size, the wage distribution 
shows a tendency to remain more or less stationary, while tlie age distribu- 
tion shows more mature workers than in some of the other occupations. 

The figures showing the distribution of the 370 cashiers studied are 
given in the following table. 

Table XXVII. Showing age and wage distribution of 370 cashiers in 
the city of Minneapolis. 

AGE GROUPS 



Wages per 
Week 


Less than 
18 


18-21 


22-25 


26-35 


36-45 


40 + 


Total 


Less than SIO 


16 

4 


37 
30 
13 

7 


21 
51 
25 
10 
2 


16 
28 
41 
17 
20 




2 
2 
2 


92 


$10-14 

15-19 


4 
7 
5 
9 


119 

88 


20-24 




39 


25 + 




1 


32 










Total 


20 


87 


109 


122 


25 


7 


370 



While in the case of office helpers 71 per cent were under 26 years 
of age, the cashiers showed 216 or 58.4 per cent of the same age groups. 
On the other hand, the office helpers received less than a minimum subsis- 
tence wage in only 19 per cent of the cases, while the cashiers re- 
ceived such a low wage in 92 or 24.9 per cent of the cases. 
On the other hand, those receiving a living wage or more numbered 71 or 
19.1 per cent as compared with 11.1 per cent in this wage group among the 
office helpers. On the whole, the majority of these workers still remain 
in the wage groups which permit of only minimum subsistence or less. 

FORELADIES, 

The foreladies represent a supervising group of workers presumably 
with experience in the trade in which they are employed, and on the average 
older than the women workers in the other trades. The following table 
shows the distribution of the foreladies by age and wage groups. 

Table XXVIII. Showing the age and wage distribution of 557 foreladies 
employed in the city of Minneapolis. 

AGE GROUPS 



Wages per 
Week 


Less than 
18 


18-21 


22-25 


26-35 


36-45 


46 + 


Total 


Less than $10. 

$10-14 

15-19 


25 
4 


26 

82 

23 

3 

1 


9 

65 

~ 43 

17 

6 


8 
45 
60 
31 
27 


5 
13 
23 

'~ 12 ^ 
13 


4 
3 

2 


77 
212 
151 


20-24 




63 .--- 


25 + 




7 


54 








Total 


29 


135 


140 


171 


66 


\ 16 


557 



It is surprising to find that despite the experience required in the per- 
formance of the duties of forelady (forewoman) 304 or 51.6 per cent were 
under 26 years of age. The wages of this group of workers vary only 
slightly from the other group, as 77 or 13.8 per cent received less than a 
minimum subsistence wage, and 212 or 38 per cent received a mere subsis- 
tence wage. In other words, more than half of this group of supposed ex- 
perienced and skilled workers received a bare subsistence wage or less. 
Just what the duties of these workers are we were unable to ascertain from 
the data gathered. It is evident, however, that in a considerable number 
of instances the work is of such character as to command a fair wage, 
since 117 or 21 per cent of these wage earners received a living wage or 
more. 

FACTORY WORKERS. 

One Of the most important groups studied in the course of this inquiry 
was that of the 2,537 factory workers, as their wages and age distribution 



u 



are quite typical of tbe general industrial situation among the women. The 
following table shows the coadit'ons fovnd. 

Table XXIX. Showing age and wage distribution of 2,537 factory work- 
ers in the city of Minneapolis. 

AGE GROUPS 



Wages per 
Week 


Less than 
18 


18-21 


22-25 


26-35 


36-45 


46 + 


Total 


Less than $10. 
SlO-14 

15-19 

20-24 


424 

128 

9 


317 

425 

76 

5 

2 


130 

221 

92 

7 

1 


135 

208 

68 

8 

2 


60 

93 

29 

3 


42 

47 

5 


1,108 

1,122 

279 

23 


25+ . 






5 












Total. . . . 


561 


825 


451 


421 


185 


94 


2,537 



Table XXIX shows that 1,387 or 58.9 per cent of this type of workers 
were less than 22 years of age, while there was a comparatively small num- 
ber of these workers above 35 years of age. The wage distribution, how- 
ever, is indicative of a very serious condition, with 1,108 or 43.8 per cent of 
the workers receiving less than a subsistence wage, and 1,122 or 40.4 per 
cent receiving a mere subsistence wage. Only 28 or 1.1 per cent received 
a normal wage which allows of a proper standard. 

The discussion of the wage and age distribution among workers in 
specific occupations would seem to show that wages have remained during 
the war so low as to permit of little improvement in the standard of living; 
and that the majority of the workers are compelled to struggle with the 
problems of mere subsistence; and that only in comparatively few instances, 
and particularly in the semi-professional occupations, have v/ages reached 
a point where a normal living can be secured on the wage received. 

HOURS OF LABOR. 

There is no condition of labor that so fundamentally affects the health 
and welfare of the workers as the number of hours of work per v/eek. In 
order to ascertain what the distribution of hours of labor is in relation to 
the 54,115 women employed in the various establishments considered in the 
course of this investigation, a study was made of the distribution of such 
hours of labor according to cities, and according to the five main classes 
of occupation. The following table shows the distribution of hours of labor 
throughou.t the state. 

TABLE No. XXX 
Showing Distribution of Women Workers According to Hours of Labor and Occupation 

Throughout the State 



Industry 


Less 

than 

44. 


44-48 


49-54 


55-60 


61-67 


68-72 


73-78 


79-84 


Over 
84 


Totals 




446 
2.37 


5,071 
26.93 


12,424 
65.97 


848 
4.5 


26 
.14 


12 
.06 


5 
.03 






18,832 








100. 










Mercantile.. 
Percent. . . . 


497 
3.18 


3,032 
21.23 


7,123 

49.88 


2,937 
20.57 


426 
2.98 


158 
1.11 


55 
.38 


23 
.16 


30 
.21 


14,281 
100. 


Telephone & 

Telegraph 

Percent .... 


149 
4.5 


1,548 
46.74 


533 
16.09 


864 
26.09 


97 
2.92 


42 
1.27 


13 
.39 


38 
1.15 


28 
.85 


3,312 
100. 


Service 

Percent 


744 
9.99 


837 
11.24 


1,116 
14.99 


2,459 
33.02 


1,135 
15.24 


453 
6.08 


195 
2.02 


370 
4.97 


138 
1.85 


7,447 
100. 


All other 

Industries 
Percent. . . . 


2,065 
20.16 


5,228 
51.04 


1,762 
17.2 


1,080 
10.54 


53 
.52 


41 
.4 


7 
.07 


6 
.06 


1 
.01 


10,2t3 
100. 


Totals 

Percent .... 


3,901 
7.21 


15,716 
29.04 


22,958 
42.42 


8,188 
15.13 


1,737 
3.21 


706 
1.3 


275 
.51 


437 
.81 


197 
.37 


54.115 
100. 



The above table shows that only 7.21 per cent of the workers are em- 
ployed at tasks requiring less than 44 hours of work per week, and that 



24 



29.04 per cent were employed between 44 and 48 hours per week. The largest 
proportion of workers, however, were employed between 49 and 54 hours per 
week, as 22,958 or 42.42 per cent were so employed. The most remarkable 
situation is to be found in the fact that 909 workers were employed for 73 
hours or more per week, or an average of 12 hours a day and over. This 
would undoubtedly seem an excessive number of hours of employment for 
any industry. 

When we consider the five classes of occupation, we find that the 
longest hours prevail in the telegraph and telephorie plants, and in the 
various lines of service, and other types ci th-^^t oliaracter. The shortest 
hours seem to prevail in the miscellaneous industries where, out of a total 
of 10,24 3 workers, 7,293 or 71.2 of 1 per cent, were employed only 48 hours 
a week or less. The largest proportion of women workers, working between 
55 and 60 hours per week, is found among the telegraph and telephone 
workers and in service. The fact that 11,540 workers were employed for 
55 hours or more each week, indicates that there is a very considerable 
amount of employment beyond what would seem a reasonable day's work 
or over nine hours a day for six days a week. 

The discrepancy in totals is due to the fact that there was a difference 
in the number of schedules for which certain kinds of information was ob- 
tained or was lacking. 

In order to ascertain the different conditions and the distribution of 
hours of labor throughout the state, we have divided the 54,115 women, 
studying them from the point of view of hours of labor, into groups repre- 
senting the three largest cities, Minneapolis, St. Paul and Duluth, and the 
rest of the state, and have studied the distribution of hours according to 
occupational groups. The following tables present the detailed data re- 
garding this distribution of hours. 



TABLE XXXI 
Showing the Di.stribution of Hours According to the Cities and the rest of the State 



Minneapoli 

Totals 

Per Cent, . . 

St. Paul- 
Totals 

Per Cent. . . 

Duluth— 

Totals 

Per Cent. . . 

State outsi 

Totals 

Per Cent. . . 



Less 

than 

44 



1,G84 

7.88 



83.3 
6.18 



421 

G.86 

de Citi 

003 
7.33 



44-48 



6,930 
32.46 



4,714 

34 . or, 

(.34 . 967) 



1,799 
29 . '.i'l 



2,273 
17.29 



49- 54 



9,838 
46.07 



6,720 
49 . S3 



2,484 
40.48 



3,916 
29.79 



55-60 



1,852 

8.67 



1,175 
8.71 



1,274 
20.76 



3,887 
29.58 



61-67 



982 
4.60 



28 

.21 

(.207) 



97 

1 . 58 



630 
4.79 



68-72 



.03 

(.037) 



26 
.42 



642 

4.88 



73-78 



14 
.06 



7 

.06 

(.059) 



.36 



232 
1.76 



79-84 



4 

.07 

(.066) 

424 
3.24 



Over 
84 



9 
.04 



3 
.02 



9 
.15 

(.1466) 

176 
1.34 



Totals 



21,351 
100 



13,485 
100 



6,136 

100 

13,143 



These figures indicate that there is a smaller proportion of women em- 
ployed working 48 hours a day or less outside of the larger cities than in 
any of the three important cities of the state. It is also clear that there 
is a larger proportion of women employed between 49 and 54 hours a day 
in the city of St. Paul than in any of the rest of the state. It is also evi- 
dent that there is a larger proportion of women working less than 55 hours 
a week in the city of Minneapolis than in the rest of the state. Practically 
one-half of the women employed in the city of St. Paul 49.83 per cent 
were employed between 49 and 54 hours a week. The greatest frequency 
of long hours was found outside of the cities of the state with Minneapolis 
next in order of importance. 



25 



In order to determine the differences in conditions that prevail in 
various industries, we have divided the workers according to occupational 
groups and we have found the following conditions: 

TABLE XXXII 

Showing the Distribution of Women Workers in Manufactures According to the Cities 

and the State 



Industry 


Less 

than 

44 


44-48 


49-54 


55-60 


61-67 


68-72 


73-78 


79-84 


Over 

84 


Total 


Minneapoli 

Mftrs 


s — 

246 
2.60 

80 
1.56 

46 
3.26 

de of Ci 

74 
2.63 


2,334 
24.65 

1,966 
38.25 

174 
12.31 

ties— 

597 
21.25 


6,798 
71 . 79 

3,038 
59.10 

1,134 
80.25 

1,454 
51.74 


80 

.85 

55 
1.07 

59 
4.18 

654 
23.27 


8 
.08 

1 
.02 




3 
.03 






9,469 


Per Cent . . . 






100 


St. Paul— 

Mftrs 






5 140 


Per Cent. . . 










100 


Duluth— 

Mftrs 










1,413 


Per Cent. . . 












100 


State outsi 

Mftrs 


17 
.61 


12 
.43 


2 
.07 






2,810 


Per Cent. . . 






100 











The above table shows that in the industries throughout the state there 
is a greater frequency of long hours than in any of the cities. It is also evi- 
dent that the manufacturing plants of Duluth have the largest proportion of 
women employed over 48 hours a week outside of the plants studied in the 
smaller communities and throughout the state. In St. Paul conditions 
seem to be more favorable as 39.81 of 1 per cent were employed 48 hours 
a week or less. 

Mercantile Establishments: — When we consider Mercantile Establish- 
ments, we find the following distribution of workers according to hours of 
employment. 

TABLE XXXIII 

Showing the Distribution of Women Workers in the Cities and the State According to 
Location by Number of Hours of Work per Week 



Industry 


Less 
than 

44 


44-48 


49-54 


55-60 


61-67 


68-72 


73-78 


79-84 


Over 

84 


Total 


Minneapoli 

Mercantile, . 
Per Cent. . . 

St. Paul— 


s — ■ 

231 
4.92 

102 
2.62 

37 
1.77 

de Citi 

127 
3.53 


1,652 
35.20 

595 
15.27 

421 
20.07 

es — 

364 
10.13 


2,223 
47.37 

2,871 
73.69 

962 
45.85 

1,067 
29.69 


525 
11.18 

314 
8.06 

675 
32.17 

1,423 
39 . 59 


44 
.93 

14 
.36 

3 
.14 

365 
10.16 


9 
.19 


.04 




7 
.17 


4,693 
100 

3,896 


Per Cent. . . 










100 


Duluth— 

Mercantile. 










2,098 


Per Cent. . . 










100 


State outsi 

Mercantile., 
Per Cent.. . 


149 
4.14 


53 
1.48 


23 
0.64 


.23 
0.64 


3,594 
100 



The distribution of workers in Mercantile Establishments shews that 
the communities outside of the three largest cities maintain a schedule of 
hours of work far in excess of those within the cities, as 56.65 per cent 
of the workers were employed 55 hours a week or more as compared to 
12.51 per cent in Minneapolis; 8.42 per cent in St. Paul and 32.31 per cent 
in Duluth. 



26 



These figures would seem to indicate that there is a tendency towards 
longer hours outside of the larger cities and that the smallest of the large 
cities in the state maintained the longest hours in these Mercantile Estab- 
lishments. 

Telegraph and Telephone Companies: — When you consider the tele- 
graph and telephone companies we find the following distribution of hours: 

TABLE No. XXXIV 
Showing the Number of Women Employed in the Cities and the State outside of the 
large Cities in the Telephone and Telegraph Companies According to the 
Number of Hours Employed 



Industry 


Less 

than 

44 


44-48 


49-54 


55-60 


61-67 


08-72 


73-78 


79-84 


Over 
84 


Total 


Minneapoli 

Tel. & Tel 


s — ■ 

32 
4.86 


578 
87.84 

685 
97.3 

112 
94.92 

es — 

173 
9.44 


48 
7.30 

13 
1.85 

6 
5.08 

466 
25.44 














658 


Per Cent 














100 


St. Paul- 
Tel. & Tel . 


6 

85 












704 
















100 


Duluth— 

Tel. & Tel . 
















118 


Per Cent 
















100 


State outsi 

Tel. & Tel. . 
Per Cent.. . 


de Citi 

117 
6.39 


858 
46.83 


97 
5.30 


42 
2.29 


13 
.71 


38 
2.07 


28 
1.53 


1,832 
100 



This table shows that on a whole there is a considerable uniformity in 
the number of hours of employment in the telegraph and telephone com- 
panies and that the hours are comparatively short. It is astonishing, how- 
ever, to find that outside of the large cities 58.73 per cent of the women em- 
ployed in telegraph and telephone establishments worked 55 hours a week 
or more as compared to .85 of 1 per cent working more than 54 hours a week 
in the cities. 

Service: — The number of women employed in service either personal or 
domestic shows the following distribution. 

TABLE No. XXXV 

Showing the Number of Women Employed in the Cities and the State Outside of the 
Large Cities in Service According to the Number of Hours Emplojed 



Industry 


Less 

than 

44 


44-48 


49-54 


55-60 

1,233 
35.02 


61-67 


68-72 


73-78 


79-84 


Over 
84 


Total 


Minneapoli 

Service 

Per Cent . . . 


382 
10.85 


313 

8.89 


021 
17.64 


928 
26.36 


24 

.68 


9 
.25 


9 
25 


2 
.06 


3,521 
100 


St. Paul- 
Service 

Per Cent. . . 


56 
6. .56 


327 
38.29 


131 
15.34 


313 
36.65 


12 
1.41 


5 
.58 


7 
.82 




3 
.35 


854 
100 


Duluth— 

Service 

Per Cent . . . 


39 
4.59 


87 
10.25 


124 
14.61 


444 
52.30 


94 
11.07 


26 
3.06 


22 
2.. 59 


4 

.47 


9 
1.06 


849 
100 


State outsi 

Service 

Per Cent . . . 


de of C 

267 
12.01 


ities — 

110 
4.94 


240 
10.79 


469 
21.10 


101 
4.58 


.398 
17.9 


1.57 
7.06 


357 
16.05 


124 
5.57 


2,223 
100 



It is clear from the above table that the women employed in various 
classes of service gave longer hours to their work than in any other occu- 
pational group. This is particularly true in the communities outside of the 
large cities where 51.16 per cent of the women employed outside of 



27 



the city worked 61 hours or more per week, a condition that was not com- 
parable to that of any of the larger cities. It was found, however, that in 
the city of Minneapolis 27.6 per cent of the women employed in service 
worked 61 hours a week or more. There was no evidence in any of the 
cities of such unusually long hours as were found in the communities outside 
of the large cities. 

All Other Industries: — The following table shows the distribution of 
women according to the number of hours in all other industries: 



TABLE No. XXXVI 

Showing the Number of Women Employed in the Cities and the State Outside of the 

Large Cities in all other Industries 



Industry 


Less 

than 

44 


44-48 


49-54 


55-60 


61-67 


68-72 


73-78 


79-84 


Over 
84 


Total 


Minneapoli 

All other In- 


s — • 

793 
26.35 

595 
20.58 

299 
18.03 

de of C 

378 
14.08 


2,053 
68.21 

1,141 
39.47 

1,005 
60.62 

ities — 

1,029 
38.34 


148 
4.92 

667 
23.07 

258 
15.56 

6S9 
25.67 


14 
.46 

487 
16.85 

96 
5.79 

483 
18.00 


2 
.06 

1 
03 










3,010 


Per Ueut. . . 










100 


St. Paul- 
All other In- 










2,891 


Per Cent 










100 


Duluth— 

All other In- 












1 .6.58 


Per Cent.. . 












100 


State outsi 

All other In- 
dustries . 
Per Cent.. . 


50 
1.86 


41 
1 . 53 


7 
.26 


6 
.22 


1 
.04 


2,684 
100 



An examination of the above table shows that in the various industries 
that have not been classified in any of the above groups there is a preva- 
lence of comparatively short hours and that this is true of the communities 
outside of the large cities as it is in the cities themselves. 

On the whole, it may be stated that there is a greater tendency towards 
long hours in the communities outside of the larger cities and this applies 
to all groups of occupations. It should also be stated that in the city of 
Minneapolis is shown a larger prevalence of women employed over 60 hours 
a week than in any of the other large cities of the state and that in domestic 
service and in the telegraph and telephone establishments the number of 
hours of work seem more reasonable than in any of the other occupational 
groups. 



NATIVITY AND CONIUGAL CONDITION OF WAOE EARNERS. 

One of the most common problems in the maintenance of a normal wage 
standard is the competition between various groups of workers and the 
margin of subsistence in the family which determines whether a married 
woman should enter or continue in industrial life. In order to ascertain to 
what extent the employment of married women affects the native and for- 
eign groups, we have separated all women who have been married, accord- 
ing to nativity, child dependency and the various conditions of marital life. 

The following table gives a general classification of the marital condi- 
tion by nativity: 



28 



TABLE No. XXXVII 
Showing Distribution of Native and Foreign Born Married Women According to Con- 
jugal Condition at Time of Employment 



Nativity 


No. 
Mar- 
ried 


Per- 
cent 


No. 
Wid- 
dowed 


Per- 
cent 


No. 
Di- 
vorced 


Per- 
cent 


No. 
Sep- 
arated 


Per- 
cent 


No. 

De- 

.serted 


Per- 
cent 


Total 


Native 

Foreign Born. . ." 


4,463 
1,724 


62.4 
65.3 


542 
601 


7.5 
22.7 


1,551 
139 


21.7 
5.3 


472 
118 


6.6 
4.5 


123 

58 


i.S 
2.2 


7,151 
2,640 


Total 


6,187 


63.2 


1,143 


11.7 


1,690 


17.2 


590 


6.0 


181 


1.9 


9,791 



The above table would seem to indicate that widowhood is three times 
more frequently the cause of emploj'ment among the foreign born than among 
native women employed, and while the frequency of divorced women among 
the native employed is about four times greater than among the foreign 
women, the proportion .of deserted women found in the course of the inquiry 
was greater among the foreign than among the native women. There 
also seems to be a slightly greater proportion of ciarried women in normal 
married life employed among tiie foreign workers as compared with the 
natives in the same group. It is surprising, however, to note how great a 
proportion of married women are at work as compared with those in ab- 
normal marital state 

A better conception, however, of the preplexities borne by the women 
in normal or abnormal marital condition can be derived from a study of the 
distribution of native and foreign women according to wage groups, and 
number of children. 

The following two tables show the distribution of married women ac- 
cording to nativity, marital condition, number of children and weekly wage 
groups of the working women considered in this study: 

TABLE No. XXXVill 
Showing Number of Native Married Women According to Nuk'nber oi Chiidren and 

Weekly Wage Groups 



Weekly Wages 


NATIVE MARRIED WOMEN 
NUMBER OF CHILDREN 


Per- 






1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


Total 


cent 


$1-9 


915 

1,242 

622 

250 

89 


241 

298 

131 

20 

6 


118 

155 

66 

19 

11 


55 

51 

24 

8 

2 


41 
42 

7 
2 


11 

14 

5 

1 


2 
3 
1 






1,386 

1,808 

860 

300 

109 


31 06 


10-14 


4 
1 


1 


40 52 


15-19 


19 27 


20-24 


6 73 


25 -i- 






9 49 












Totals 


3,118 


696 


369 


140 


92 


31 


11 


5 


1 


4,463 


100 00 






Per Cent 


69.9 


15.6 


8.2 


3.1 


2.1 


.7 


.24 


.11 


.02 


100.0 





TABLE No. XXXIX 
Showing Number of Foreign Married Women According to Number of Children and 

Weekly Wage Groups 









FOREIGN MARRIED WOMEN 
NUMBER OF CHILDREN 










Weekly Wages 




1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


2 


3 


Totals 


Per- 
cent 


,11- 9 


327 

492 

126 

18 

12 


115 

123 

44 

2 

3 


69 

76 

32 

5 

1 


56 

48 
11 

1 


38 
22 
10 


21 

14 

6 


15 

18 
7 
1 


2 
4 

1 


3 

1 


646 

797 

238 

27 

16 


37.47 


10-14 


46.23 


15-19 


13.81 


20-24 


1.56 


25 + 










.93 




















975 


287 


183 


116 


70 


41 


41 


7 


4 


1,724 


100 






Per Cent 


56.6 


16.6 


10.6 


6.7 


4.1 


2.4 


2.4 


.4 


.2 


100.0 





29 



It is clear from the above table that the native women receive higher 
wages on the average than the foreign women as only 71.58 per cent of the 
native women received wages classed as within the subsistence line, or less, 
as compared with the foreign women, of whom there were 83.7 per cent 
receiving such low wages. 

It is also clear that while there were only 2.49 per cent of the foreign 
women receiving a wage above the minimum standard, there were 9.15 per 
cent native women in this better wage grouping. 

When we consider children to be taken care of by these two wage earn- 
ing groups, we find that foreign women work more frequently when they 
have children than when they are childless. The proportion of native wo- 
men without children found at work was 69.9 per cent, while in the case of 
the foreign women only 46 per cent were childless. The fact that wages 
among native married women are comparatively higher, and childlessness 
more frequent, would lead to the belief that economic necessity is more 
likely to be a factor in determining foreign married women to become wage 
earners than in the case of the native married women. As we have no 
data relating to the occupation and wages of the husbands, the above 
opinion is to be taken merely as a conjecture, which, however, has con- 
siderable basis of fact. 

Considering the widowed women according to nativity, wage groups, and 
number of children, we find the following distribution: 



TABLE NO. XL 

Showing Distribution of Native Widowed Women According to Wage Groups 

and Number of Children 









NATIVE 


WIDOWED 


WOMEN 












NUMBER OF CHILDREN 




Weekly 

Wages 




1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


Totals 


per cent 


$1-9 

10-14 


70 
99 
61 

27 
28 


59 
67 
32 
11 
5 


21 

18 

8 

3 

1 


10 
6 
6 


1 
2 

2 


1 


2 


1 
1 




165 
193 
109 
41 
34 


30.44 
35 61 


15-19 






20.11 


20-24 










7 57 


25 + 














6 27 


















Totals. . . 


285 


174 


51 


22 


5 


1 


2 


2 




542 


100.00 


Per cent . . . 


52.5 


32.1 


9.4 


.4 


.1 


.2 


.4 


.4 







TABLE NO. XLI 

Showing Distribution of Foreign Widowed Women According to Wage 

Groups and Number of Children 

FOREIGN WIDOWED WOMEN 









NUMBER OF 


CHILDREN 






Weekly 
Wages 




1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


Totals 


per cent 


$ 1-9 


155 

137 

50 

23 

9 


38 

48 

15 

3 

3 


21 

28 
9 
1 
1 


11 

11 

9 


6 

8 
4 


2 

2 
2 


1 
1 
1 






234 

235 

91 

27 
14 


38.94 


10-14 






39.10 


15-19 

20-24 


1 




15.14 
4.49 


25 + 




1 










2.33 














Totals. . . 


374 


107 


60 


31 


19 


6 


3 


1 




601 


100.00 


Per cent . . . 


62.2 


17.8 


10 


5.1 


3.2 


1.1 


.5 


.2 









The above tables indicate a wage distribution showing 38.94 per cent of 
the foreign widowed women with a wage below the minimum subsistence 
line and involving the welfare of 153 children, as compared with 30.44 per 
cent of native widowed women involving the destinies of 159 children in the 
same wage group. 



In all there were 312 children under the care of widowed women re- 
ceiving a wage insufficient for a minimum subsistence of one person, and 
these children were almost equally distributed between native and foreign 
widowed mothers. Contrary to the conditions found in the case of the 
married women, the proportion of the widowed women without children 
at work was greater among the foreign widowed than among the native 
widowed. This fact may also be used as evidence of the greater economic 
pressure upon foreign women in determining their entrance into gainful 
occupations than in the case of the native women. The proportion of native 
widowed women without children at work was 52.5 per cent, as compared 
with 62.2 per cent of foreign women in the same marital condition. Note 
should also be taken of the fact that while in the case of the native widowed 
women only 6G.05 per cent received a mere subsistence wage or less, in the 
case of the foreign born widows 78.04 per cent received a mere subsistence 
wage or less. 

As has been pointed out in an earlier part of this study, there were more 
than 11 times as many divorced native women at work than there were 
foreign women of the same marital state. Whether this represents a normal 
proportion in the total population of native and foreign women would be 
difficult to tell, as the census figures are entirely too out of date to be of 
any value in computing data on this point. The following two tables will 
give us the distribution of divorced women according to nativity, number of 
children and wage groups. 

TABLE XLII 

Showing Distribution of Foreign Divorced Women According to Wage 

Qroup and Number of Children 

FOREIGN DIVORCED WOMEN 







NUMBER 


OF CHILDREN 








Weekly 
Wages 




1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


Totals 


per cent 


$1-9 

10-14 


26 

22 

12 

3 

1 


11 

19 

9 

3 


5 
9 
3 


2 
5 

1 


1 


5 


50 
55 
25 

7 
2 


35.97 
39.57 


15-19 






17.99 


20-24 


1 




5.03 


25 + 


1 




1.44 












Totals .... 


64 


42 


IS 


8 


2 


5 


139 


100.00 


Per cent 


46 


30.2 


12 9 


5.8 


1.5 


3.6 


100.0 





TABLE XLIU 

Showing Di.stribution of Native Divorced Women According to Wage 

Groups and Number of Children 

NATIVE DIVORCED WOMEN 









NUMBER 


OF CHILDREN 










Weekly 
Wages 




1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


Totals 


per cent 


$ 1-9 

10-14 


298 

394 

169 

52 

48 


98 
124 
60 
20 
13 


56 
68 
23 
10 

8 


34 
15 

7 
7 


13 

18 
2 


5 
5 
1 

1 


1 




505 

624 

263 

90 

69 


32.56 
40.23 


15 19 




1 


16.96 


20 24 




5.80 


25 + 






4.45 














Totals . . . 


961 


315 


165 


63 


33 


12 


1 


1 


1,551 


100.00 


Per cent 


62 


20.3 


10.6 


4.1 


2.1 


.8 


.05 


.05 


100.0 





Perhaps the most striking fact indicated by the above tables is that 
in the case of the native divorced women, 1,038 children were involved, 
while in the case of the foreign divorced women, only 135 children were 



31 



involved. The distribution of women receiving wages below the line of 
minimum subsistence is 32.56 per cent in the case of the native women, and 
35.97 per cent in the case of foreign women. The number of children 
involved, however, is 395 in the case of the native as compared with only 
56 in the case of foreign women. With the exception of the wage group of 
$25.00 per week and over, which is about three times greater in the cases 
of native divorced women as compared with the foreign women in the same 
group, the distribution found in the other wage groups shows very little 
variation. 

Perhaps the most pathetic type of woman wage earner is to be found 
among the deserted. It is fortunate that they constitute a comparatively 
small class totalling 181, of which the native deserted women are twice 
as numerous as the foreign womexi of the same marital condition. The fol- 
lowing tables show their distribution according to nativity, wage groups 
and number of children: 

TABLE XLIV 

Showing Distribution of Native Deserted Vv'ornen According to Wage 

Groups and Number of Children 

NATIVE DESERTED WOMEN 





NUMBER OF CHILDREN 




Weekly 
Wages 




1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


Totals 


per vCnt 


$ 1-9 


23 

15 

5 

1 

1 


17 

11 

4 

3 


7 

10 

3 


3 
2 

2 


5 
3 
4 


2 








57 

42 

18 

4 

2 


46 34 


10-14 








34 15 


15-19 








14 63 


20-24 










3 25 


25 + 




1 












1 63 




















Totals. . . 


45 


35 


20 


8 


12 


3 








123 


100 00 












Per cent. . . 


36.6 


28.5 


16.2 


6.5 


9.7 


2.5 













TABLE NO. XLV 

Showing Number of Foreign Deserted Women According to Wage Groups 

and Number of Children 

FOREIGN DESERTED WOMEN 









NUMBER 


OF 


CHILDREN 




Weekly 
Wages 




1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


Totals 


per cent 


$1-9 


8 

12 

2 


9 

7 
2 


5 
2 
2 


1 

"i' 


1 
1 


2 

' "l" 

1 








26 

23 

8 

1 


44.83 


10-14 


1 






39 . 60 


15-19 






13 79 


20-24 










1 72 


25 + 












































Totals. . . 


22 


18 


9 


2 


2 


4 


1 






58 


100.00 










Per cent . . 


37.9 


31. 


15.5 


3.5 


3.5 


7. 


3.6 






100 





While the above figures show throughout a greater frequency of lower 
wages among the foreign deserted women, the difference between the 
group receiving a wage sufficient for a mere subsistence or less is com- 
paratively small (80.4 per cent for native women and '^4.49 per cent for 
foreign women). It is in the wages above the normal subsistence 
line ($20.00 per week and over) that the difference is greatest, but 
the number of this class of workers is so small that the figures have no 
special value except that they follow the trend indicated in the other groups. 

The number of children involved is 162 of native mothers and 76 of for- 
eign mothers, while there were 70 children of native mothers receiving less 
than a minimum subsistence wage as compared with 36 children of foreign 
mothers in the same wage group. 



32 



Of the 590 women separated from their husbands that came within the 
purview of the present study, 472 were native and 118 were foreign born. 
The conditions of wage distribution and number of children in the two 
groups are indicated in the following tables: 



TABLE NO. XLV! 

Showing Number of Native Women Separated from their Husbands, According 
ti> Wage Groups and Number of Children 

NATIVE SEPARATED WOMEN 









NUMBER OF 


CHILDREN 




Weekly 
Wages 





1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


Totals 


per cent 


$ 1- 9. . . . 


95 
95 

48 
8 
6 


48 

5G 

23 

9 


22 
23 

7 ' 

1 

2 


5 

10 

2 


8 
3 


1 








179 

187 

80 

IS 

S 


37.93 


10-14 








39.62 


14-19 










16.95 


20-24 












3.81 


25 + 














1.69 
















Totals. . . 


252 


13G 


55 


17 


11 


.1 








472 


100.00 


Per cent . . . 


53.4 


28.8 


11.7 


3.6 


2.3 


.2 








100. 





TABLE NO. XLV!! 

Showing Number of Foreign V/omen Separated From Their Husbands. According to 
Wage Groups and Number of Children 

FOREIGN SEPARATED WOMEN 





NUMBER OF CHILDREN 




Weekly 
Wages 




1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


Totals 


per cent 


5 1- 9 ... . 


26 

32 

4 


16 
11 
6 

1 


7 

7 


5 


2 










56 
50 
11 

1 


47.46 


10-14. . . . 










42.37 


15-19. . . . 


1 












9.32 


20-24 .... 












.85 


25 + 












































Totals. . . 


02 


34 


14 


6 


2 










118 


100.00 














Per cent. . . 


52.5 


28.8 


11.9 


5.1 


1.7 










100.0 





The figures relating to the proportion of separation of native and foreign 
born women who were childless, as indicated by the above tables of women 
v/age earners, is practically the same, 53.4 per cent for the former group, and 
52.5 per cent for the latter. In all, there were 434 children involved, of which 
346 were of native mothers and 88 of foreign mothers. When we consider 
the children of mothers receiving a wage below the line of minimum sub- 
sistence we find that there were 149 such children of native mothers and 53 
of foreign mothers. It is also to be observed that the foreign women re- 
ceived less than a subsistence wage in 47.46 per cent of the cases as com- 
pared with 37.93 per cent in this wage group of native parentage. 

In conclusion it may be said that foreign women more frequently receive 
less than a minimum subsistence v.'age than native women, and that the 
latter go to work as the family increases and the economic pressure makes 
work necessary in order to piece out wages rather than because of inde- 
pendence from home responsibilities. 



33 



RECOMMENDATIONS. 

In view of the fact that living costs are constantly fluctuating, and that 
this fluctuation determines tlie value of a wage in relation to the main- 
tenance cost of the workers, no minimum wage established by statute is 
adequate. Wage boards with powers to make adjustments in accordance 
with changes in the cost of essential commodities — food, shelter and cloth- 
ing — are therefore the only instrumentalities through which a fair living 
wage scale could be determined and maintained. 

Hours of labor, while regulated by law, are evidently not wholly under 
control, and should therefore be subjected to a careful method of reporting 
which would furnish data relative to the number of hours of weekly em- 
ployment for every woman in the industries of the state of Minnesota. 

In view of the fact that 7,200 children were found dependent, or partly 
dependent upon the earnings of their mothers, the state or local authorities 
should undertake a careful investigation of all such children with a view to de- 
termining the conditions under which such children are living and the 
effect that the mother's employment has upon the well-being of the child. 
Such a study would result in the development of a constructive plan of 
service in the interest of thousands of the state's children whose mothers 
are engaged as wage earners outside of their homes. 

A study of the conditions of labor turnover and its causes would reveal 
the condition of work, the amount of illness, etc., due to industrial condi- 
tions, and might lead to the establishment of working hours and other 
working conditions more conducive to steady employment and a reduction in 
the labor turnover. 

Since so many women with children have been found employed, a study 
of the period of unemployment preceding and following childbirth and the 
effect of these periods of unemployment upon the morbidity and mortality 
rates of the babies should be made in order to make possible the establish- 
ment of definite periods of unemployment of working women prior to and 
after childbirth. 



34 



CONCLUSIONS. 

A careful analysis of the data presented in the present report warrants 
the following conclusions: 

1. Seventeen thousand four hundred and fifty-nine women workers out 
of a total of 51,361 or 34.05 per cent received Ifss than a minimum sub- 
sistence wage and 19,244 or 37.49 per cent of these 51,361 wage earners 
received a "minimum subsistence" wage. 

2. Out of a total of 51,361 women wage earners, 28,683 or 55.8 per 
cent contribute out of their earnings towards the supi)ort of some one or 
more persons in their family and this is true particularly of deserted, wid- 
owed, married and divorced women, as indicated in th^ tables. 

3. There were 7,206 children of less than working age dependent 
upon the earnings of the 3,779 mothers employed wiio were included in this 
study of the child population of a city of 25,000 people. 

1. The cities draw more frequently upon married women for their 
industries and other extra domestic occupations than the smaller com- 
munities. 

5. The highest wages are received more frequently by women between 
22 and 35 than at any other period, and the period after 35 years show a 
very i-apid decline in the wage standard. The best wage standards found 
were those prevailing in the clerical occupations such as bookkeeping, 
stenography, clerks, cashiers, etc. The skilled trades such as printing, 
sewing, machine operating showed no particular tendency toward-; belter 
wage standards. 

6. While we cannot draw any positive conclusions as to tne rate of 
increase in wages that had taken place during the war, it is cleai- that a 
disproportionate number of women were receiving a wage below the mini- 
mum of subsistence and that these low wages were frequently needed to 
assist in the support of the family of the wage earner. 

7. There was a slightly larger proportion of foreign nuirried women 
employed than native women of the same marital grotip and the largest 
proportion of the women workers who had been married, was living in a 
normal marital state wliile working. Three times as large a proportion of 
widowed foreign women was working as compared with the native women 
of the same groups but there was about four limes a greater proportion of 
divorced native w^omen than foreign women of the same marital group. 

8. The native women are employed at comparatively higher wages 
than the foreign women and the foreign married women enter gainful occu- 
pations more frequently wlien they have children ihan do the native women, 
showing, perhaps, that economic necessity is the cause of employment in a 
large nvimber of cases. 

9. The hours of work were on the average longer in the counties 
outside of the three largest cities and the groups of occupations classed 
as service showed the longest hours, particularly in (he counties outside the 
largest cities. Of the cities, Minneapolis showed the largest proportion of 
workei'S in service employed during long hours. On the wliole there seemed 
to be an excessive proportion of workers employed for ovei- 60 hours per 
week. 



35 



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02A 



tiii 091 2 



